FOOTNOTES:

^a Traditionally, ‘apostle.’ The word means ‘someone who is sent to carry out a purpose’ and while it became used in a particular way in the church, it was not an inherently religious word in the Greek language.

^b Traditionally, ‘gospel’ or ‘good news.’ The word comes from the practice of runners being sent ahead of armies returning home to announce the victory so that the people of the city could prepare celebrations and meet those who triumphed outside the gates and accompany them inside in a triumphal procession.

^c Or ‘scriptures’

^d Traditionally, ‘according to the flesh.’ The phrase is referring to Jesus being descended from David, being in the biological family line.

^e This word is often translated as ‘appointed’ in this verse. It has the sense of defining the boundaries around something, so not appointing in the sense of creating a new status, but rather in the sense of clarifying, distinguishing the role he has and how it’s different from others’ roles.

^f The title “Son of God” was a nickname for the emperor, a title taken on originally by Augustus Caesar, the son of Julius Caesar who was worshiped as divine, and was then used by each subsequent Caesar. Its use to refer to Jesus was an intentional challenge to Caesar’s authority, and dangerously subversive political statement.

^g Traditionally, ‘Spirit.’ The Greek word pneuma could be used to refer to ‘wind,’ ‘breath,’ or an animating energy within people, thought to be perceptible in the breath. Hebrew and Latin also use the same word for all these concepts. In scripture, it calls back the image to Genesis 1 and 2: “the Spirit of God was hovering over the surface of the waters” (Genesis 1:2 NASB) and “the Lord God formed the human from the topsoil of the fertile land and blew life’s breath into [its] nostrils. The human came to life.” (Genesis 2:7 CEB).

^h Traditionally, ‘of holiness.’ This translation defines the word as a designation for sacred purposes and leaves the definition in place of the single word that can be easily misunderstood.

ⁱ Traditionally, ‘resurrection.’ The word literally means to ‘get up again’ or ‘stand again’ or even simply ‘stand up.’ It was commonly paired with ‘fall asleep’ as a euphemism for ‘to die’ and ‘standing again’ referred to coming back to life. However, the word could also literally mean ‘stand up’ from a sitting or lying position or to confront an oppressor or to claim a role, such as prophet.

^j Traditionally, ‘grace.’ The word root is related to the word ‘gift’ in Greek and is about the character of someone who gives freely. It can be used with material provision or with a gracious response to someone’s difficulties or mistakes.

^k Traditionally, ‘apostleship.’ This word literally means ‘sending.’ It conveyed a sense of being sent to accomplish a purpose. The Latin word used to translate this concept was *missio*, where the English word ‘mission’ comes from.

^l Traditionally, ‘obedience.’ The Greek word means ‘listen to’ in the sense of taking directions seriously and following through on them. It can be used in the sense of reporting for duty in the military or other roles.

^m Traditionally, ‘faith.’ The Greek word *pistis* carries a reciprocal relationship between the concepts of trust and following through on a commitment based on that trust. The full meaning is difficult to capture in one English word. Sometimes, the concept of ‘trust’ seems to be the most prominent part, other times ‘commitment’ and other times ‘faithfulness’ or ‘allegiance.’ ‘Faithfulness’ is the closest word to carrying the full meaning, but it should be understood that these other meanings are all in the background, informing what kind of faithfulness is in view.

ⁿ Traditionally, ‘Gentiles.’ The word *ethnoi* literally means ‘nations’ or ‘people groups’ and is where the English word ‘ethnicity comes from. It is usually—but not always—used in the Bible to refer to people groups other than the one the speaker belongs to, so typically to people groups other than Jews since most speakers/authors are Jewish.

^o Traditionally and literally, “on behalf of his name.” The meaning of that phrase is that it is being done to represent him or as his representatives.

^p Traditionally, ‘holy ones’ or ‘saints.’ This translation defines the word as a designation for sacred purposes and leaves the definition in place of the single word that can be easily misunderstood.

^q Traditionally, ‘grace’

^r Traditionally, ‘faith.’ The Greek word *pistis* carries a reciprocal relationship between the concepts of trust and following through on a commitment based on that trust. The full meaning is difficult to capture in one English word. Sometimes, the concept of ‘trust’ seems to be the most prominent part, other times ‘commitment’ and other times ‘faithfulness’ or ‘allegiance.’ ‘Faithfulness’ is the closest word to carrying the full meaning, but it should be understood that these other meanings are all in the background, informing what kind of faithfulness is in view.

^s Traditionally ‘whom I serve.’ The word *latreuo* means specifically to serve in a religious or governmental setting as an official who carries out ritual duties representing the deity or leader to the people and the people to the deity. For example, this word is used for the responsibilities of priests in representational rituals when offering sacrifices.

^t Traditionally, ‘Spirit.’ The Greek word pneuma could be used to refer to ‘wind,’ ‘breath,’ or an animating energy within people, thought to be perceptible in the breath. Hebrew and Latin also use the same word for all these concepts. In scripture, it calls back the image to Genesis 1 and 2: “the Spirit of God was hovering over the surface of the waters” (Genesis 1:2 NASB) and “the Lord God formed the human from the topsoil of the fertile land and blew life’s breath into [its] nostrils. The human came to life.” (Genesis 2:7 CEB).

^u Traditionally, ‘gospel’ or ‘good news.’ The word comes from the practice of runners being sent ahead of armies returning home to announce the victory so that the people of the city could prepare celebrations and meet those who triumphed outside the gates and accompany them inside in a triumphal procession.

^v ‘inspirational’ / ‘revitalizing’

^w Or ‘strengthen’ or ‘help you feel secure’ or ‘help you feel stable.’

^x Or ‘encouraged.’ Literally, ‘together pull close’

^y Literally, ‘brothers’ or ‘siblings,’ but it is also commonly used more broadly of other family members, such as cousins, and is often even used to refer to fellow members of a larger group, such as those of the same nationality.

^z Literally, “I don’t want you not to know”

^aa Or ‘the rest of the nations.’

^bb Literally, “I am a debtor’ or ‘I am indebted’

^cc Or ‘uncultured.’ Traditionally, ‘barbarians.’ This word was used by Greeks to refer to anyone who did not speak Greek as a measure of how cultured or civilized they were.

^dd Traditionally, ‘foolish.’ Very literally, ‘mindless.’

^ee Traditionally, ‘salvation.’ This word carries a meaning of any kind of action to prevent or repair harm. Appropriate translations could be ‘liberation,’ ‘restoration,’ ‘rescue,’ ‘healing,’ ‘preservation,’ or ‘protection.’

^ff Traditionally, ‘who believes.” The word is *pisteuo*, the verb form of ‘trust/faithfulness.’ It is an action or way of being that carries a reciprocal relationship between the concepts of trust and following through on a commitment based on that trust. The full meaning is difficult to capture in one English word. Sometimes, the concept of ‘trust’ seems to be the most prominent part, other times ‘commit’ or ‘be committed’ and other times ‘be faithful.’ ‘Be faithful’ is the closest wording to carrying the full meaning, but it should be understood that these other meanings are all in the background, informing what kind of faithfulness is in view. What someone ‘thinks exists’ or ‘holds to be true’ is not in view here.

^gg Traditionally, ‘righteousness.’ The term carries a meaning of being aligned with God’s standards described in Torah and elaborated and demonstrated by Jesus. ‘Justice’ and ‘justness’ are often appropriate words to convey the idea as most of what Jesus showed to be the focus is about how people treat each other, especially the vulnerable, like people in poverty, widows, orphans, immigrants, prisoners, people who are sick or disabled and others. The word literally means ‘aligned.’

^hh The preposition here can mean ‘from’ when it is in some contexts, but in this instance it is clearer to show that it refers to the cause of something.

ⁱⁱ Traditionally, ‘faith.’ The Greek word pistis carries a reciprocal relationship between the concepts of trust and following through on a commitment based on that trust. The full meaning is difficult to capture in one English word. Sometimes, the concept of ‘trust’ seems to be the most prominent part, other times ‘commitment’ and other times ‘faithfulness’ or ‘allegiance.’ ‘Faithfulness’ is the closest word to carrying the full meaning, but it should be understood that these other meanings are all in the background, informing what kind of faithfulness is in view.

^jj The preposition translated as ‘that results in’ can also be translated as ‘to’ but only when referring to location or direction of movement.

^kk The word often translated ‘live’ here is in the sense of being alive as opposed to dead, not the manner of how one approaches decisions and actions.

^ll The preposition here can mean ‘by’ when it is in some contexts, but in this instance it is clearer to show that it refers to the cause of something.

^mm Quotation of Habakkuk 2:4

ⁿⁿ Traditionally, ‘wrath’ which is simply an archaic way to say ‘anger’ and not a discrete theological concept.

^oo Traditionally, ‘ungodliness.’ It is more specific of a term than that, however. It refers to being unlike God in the ways that God values and treats people with dignity and respect.

^pp Traditionally, ‘unrighteousness.’ It is the opposite term of the one that means alignment with God’s standard of living as described in the Torah and elaborated and demonstrated by Jesus.

^qq The term ‘heart’ in this culture was more specific than how it is used in 21st century American culture. Instead of representing all emotion or inner experience, it was specific to representing desire and motivation.

^rr Or ‘image’ or ‘icon’

^ss Traditionally the word *sebazomai*, which is rendered here with the phrase ‘abased themselves in tribute to’ is translated as ‘worshiped.’ This word only appears one time in the Bible. In the Cambridge Greek Lexicon (2021), the definition is listed as ‘feel inhibiting shame (in the face of)’ or ‘shy from.’ Those are the only meanings listed. Related words based on the same linguistic root are *sebizo* and *sebo*, which are listed as carrying meanings such as ‘revere’ (*sebizo*) and ‘feel shame,’ ‘shrink in awe from,’ and ‘revere’ (*sebo*). The sense is denigrating, shaming, effacing oneself as a show of unworthiness in the face of something far greater as a way to revere the thing that causes shame. The fact that this is directed toward inanimate objects shows how much self-loathing the people experienced. It is worth noting that it is only idols and not God/Christ that receive that kind of ‘reverence.’

^tt Traditionally ‘served.’ The word *latreuo* means specifically to serve in a religious or governmental setting as an official who carries out ritual duties representing the deity or leader to the people and the people to the deity. For example, this word is used for the responsibilities of priests in representational rituals when offering sacrifices.

^uu Traditionally, ‘blessed.’ ‘Praised,’ ‘having spoken good things,’ and ‘affirmation’ are all from the same Greek word: *eulogeo* (verb)/eulogia (noun). It means to speak positively about someone or pronounce good things for someone’s future. God ‘being praised’ seems clearly to refer to having people speak positively about God. The ones describing God speaking toward people could be either way, but they seem here to lean more toward pronouncing good things for the future. This is a different word than is sometimes translated as ‘blessed,’ such as in Matthew 5 in the Beatitudes.

^vv Traditionally, ‘forever.’ This translation is more literal.

^ww Traditionally, ‘dishonorable.’ It has to do with treating themselves as having low worth. Whereas ‘dishonorable’ seems to be a judgment against them, the word implies the focus is on their experience of the events, on how it impacts them. Other ways to translating this would be ‘humiliating’ or ‘belittling.’

^xx Traditionally, ‘passions.’ It could make sense in context here to translate it that way. This translation of ‘experiences’ is another valid way to translate the Greek pathos, referring to events or circumstances that are experienced by one, that one endures.

^yy This is specifically the word for ‘female’ and not ‘woman.’ The word typically translated as ‘woman’ can also be translated as ‘wife’ since there was not a separate word for ‘wife.’ Presumably, the word for ‘female’ was used here to clarify that this is not talking about wife/husband/marriage interactions.

^zz The word that is translated here as ‘being sexually used by males’ is dealt with in a variety of ways in other translations. The Cambridge Greek Lexicon (2021) lists the definition of *chresis* as ‘sexual use [of a woman by a man].’ Other translations render it as ‘sexual relations’ (NET), ‘relations’ (NIV, ESV), ‘function’ (NASB), ‘intercourse’ (NRSV), and ‘use’ (KJV). There are clues as to what kinds of actions were in view. Most likely, this was in the context of the worship of the idols of fertility gods, and it involved domination and power dynamics. It seems likely that ‘natural sex’ was meant as ‘vaginal intercourse’ and ‘unnatural sex’ was indicating anal sex. The context of multiple references to words like ‘abase themselves’ and ‘demeaning’ and ‘humiliating’ and ‘degrading’ suggests this was not consensual, loving, partnered sex but was part of a ritual in which men used women with whom they had no relationship, and perhaps the women assented because it was seen as necessary for pleasing the gods. This passage should not be seen as a condemnation of same-sex intercourse or of sex for pleasure in all contexts. With that in mind, David Murphy (p. 221) writes, “According to the standard view, the “females” of Rom 1:26b have sexual intercourse with other females. According to an older interpretation, however, they engage in nonprocreative sex with men. First, when χρῆσις/χράομαι (“use”) denotes a sex act, its subject is the man, and the context involves penetration. It is doubtful that χρῆσις in Rom 1:26b refers to female–female sex. Second […] three additional ancient writers […] deem male–female nonprocreative sex “unnatural.” Third, discrepant views among earlier Byzantine writers (Anastasius, Arethas, and Greek redactors of Pseudo-Methodius’s Apocalypse) reinforce how the female–female interpretation was not the prevailing one in the early centuries. Fourth, linguistic features of Rom 1:27a more readily support the anal–oral interpretation than the female–female interpretation” (Murphy, D. [2019]. More Evidence Pertaining to “Their Females” in Romans 1:26. Journal of Biblical Literature, 138[1], 221-240. https://doi.org/10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.522595). This verse almost certainly is not about same sex intercourse. There are a variety of possible alternatives, but they all involve relations between women and people who were not their partners, and since at the time no birth control was available, it required “unnatural” means to prevent unwanted pregnancy. It is important to note that the Bible does not idealize what is “natural,” and in fact often calls people to rise above what is “natural”; therefore, the “natural” vs. “unnatural” aspect is about description not about judgment, even if the full discussion does place a judgement about the goodness of what took place.

^aaa This is specifically the word for ‘male’ and not ‘man.’ The word typically translated as ‘man’ can also be translated as ‘husband’ since there was not a separate word for ‘husband.’ Presumably, the word for ‘male’ was used here to clarify that this is not talking about wife/husband/marriage interactions.

^bbb The phrasing ‘after … abandoned’ is based on the aorist participle, which can be translated in a number of ways. It seems appropriate to interpret it in this temporal sense here. If that is the most accurate approach, then it may be suggesting that after the men finished dominating women through anal sex, their lust for dominance (not loving intimacy) was inflamed and they continued to humiliate and dominate each other through anal sex. Again, this seems not to be a condemnation of same-sex relationships but of sexual abuse.

^ccc It is important to note the cultural context of Greek thought. Sexual penetration was seen to be about domination and power. In that view, being penetrated as a man was humiliating within the social constructs in place, demeaning oneself by taking the role of a woman in a patriarchal culture.

^ddd Reference to Deuteronomy 30:20

^eee Or ‘discreditable’

^fff Or ‘depravity’

^ggg Traditionally, ‘malice.’ The word is about a mindset and behavior that causes harm and potentially desires harm toward others.

^hhh Or ‘envy’

ⁱⁱⁱ Or ‘rivalry’ or ‘arguing’ or ‘contentiousness’ or ‘strife’

^jjj Or ‘treachery’ or ‘plotting’ or ‘dishonesty’

^kkk Traditionally, ‘gossips,’ but this word literally means ‘whisperers’ and only appears in this one spot in the Bible. Speaking badly about people behind their backs could be in view here. It would fit the context. It would also fit the context to refer to scheming, planning to do harmful actions with each other.

^lll Or ‘criticizers’ or ‘gossips’

^mmm Traditionally ‘god-haters’ but the word can only mean ‘hated by God’ or ‘abhorrent to God’ or ‘detestable to God’ or an ‘abomination to God,’ not people’s response to God.

ⁿⁿⁿ Or ‘mocking’ or ‘arrogant’ or ‘abusive’

^ooo Or ‘prone to show-off’

^ppp Or ‘pretentious’ or ‘braggarts’ or ‘boasters’

^qqq Or ‘trouble’ or ‘misery’ or ‘misfortune’ or ‘disaster’

^rrr Or ‘are unresponsive to’ or ‘are unpersuaded by’ or ‘are disobedient to’

^sss Or ‘heartless’

^ttt Or ‘merciless’ or ‘ruthless’