FOOTNOTES:

^a Traditionally, ‘disciples’

^b Chapters 5-7 are one sustained progression of thought, with each section building on the last, not simply a collection of disconnected teachings. Understanding the full meaning requires looking at it all together.

^c This phrase is notoriously difficult to interpret. Many people have different ideas about what the traditional phrase ‘poor in spirit’ means. While some teach it is a three-word idiom that means something like ‘humble,’ there is no evidence of that phrase being used anywhere else in the language. Most likely, these words are not a unified phrase but should be understood by each word. Hoi ptochoi means ‘the poor [ones]’ or ‘those who are poor.’ It was not used figuratively in other literature. It literally meant to lack financial resources. In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, it was often expanded to refer to lacking other kinds of resources as well, but all related to social standing and ability to meet human needs, indicating ideas such as being vulnerable, oppressed, or unable to achieve justice without God’s intervention. To Pneumati means ‘the spirit’ or ‘the breath’ or ‘the life-breath.’ There is no preposition in Greek here, but the form of to pneumati indicates it is in the dative case, which requires a preposition in English. The task of translation is to determine which one. The writers of the early church seemed to interpret it as a chosen attitude not to value wealth or power but use their resources to benefit people in poverty. Based on the context of Matthew 1 (Exile and Jubilee) and the rest of the Sermon on the Mount that deals largely with justice, equity, and faithfulness despite concerns about financial hardship, understanding it as people in poverty who have chosen to rely on God for their livelihood or people actively choosing to reject pursuit of wealth in favor of serving people in poverty in connection with the Sacred Life-breath seems to make the most sense.

^d Traditionally, ‘blessed.’ There is not one English word that covers what is being described here. There is a sense of satisfaction or contentedness but also receiving something that meets a need. Sometimes it’s translated ‘happy’ to capture the mental/emotional component, and historically it was translated ‘blessed’ to capture the endowment aspect of it, of receiving something as a gift from God. It is about receiving something that inspires or is worthy of gratitude.

^e This whole section is a reference to Deuteronomy 28:1-14 and the blessings discussed there.

^f The traditional ‘meek’ is not a sufficient equivalent to the Greek word here, which is often used to describe someone who is self-effacing or lacking self-confidence. Praus conveys an active gentleness and patience, and its use in the Hebrew Bible (in the Greek translation [LXX]) is regarding those who rely on God rather than their own strength to protect them against injustice. It includes rejecting the use of force or violence, but also extends further into using active care through gentleness.

^g Traditionally, ‘mercy.’ The English word ‘mercy’ is sometimes used to communicate compassion, which is what is in view here. However, ‘mercy’ can also be used to refer to ‘pity’ or ‘relenting from enacting a punishment’ which has nothing to do with this Greek word. It is used of taking care of people. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, the “Septuagint,” using this word to translate the Hebrew word hesed, which means something along the lines of ‘loyal love,’ ‘compassionate faithfulness,’ ‘lovingkindness,’ ‘committed love/kindness.’ It carries a commitment to pursue good for others based in care. The Greek word is eleēmones, related to the word for olive oil, which was used as a medicinal ointment in caring for the sick.

^h The concept of ‘heart’ was similar to our figurative use as place in our body serving as the center for our cares. It did not represent all emotions, but rather, it represented desires and motivations.

ⁱ Traditionally, this phrase is ‘pure in heart.’ The word katharos, translated as ‘clean,’ is referring to ceremonial cleanness or a sense of being appropriately prepared for use toward a sacred calling, similarly to how the tabernacle, priests, and priestly equipment was ‘cleaned’ before use. It was different than simply removing dirt; it was a symbolic act of dedicating it for sacred duties.

^j The Greek is huioi tou theou. It’s most direct translation is ‘sons of God,’ but the word huios was also regularly used more figuratively to refer to an heir or descendants more broadly as well as those who were dedicated to following a particular movement or figure and emulating them.

^k See Isaiah 56:1-2.

^l The word for ‘you’ is plural in the Greek, as are most of the instances throughout Matthew. John and Jesus and others address crowds as a collective, not typically to each individual within the group.

^m Traditionally, ‘persecute.’ The word carries a sense of pursuing people with intent to harm.

ⁿ Reminiscent of Matthew 4:1-11 and the ‘False Accuser.’ People who consistently make accusations/attempt to shame others have much more in common with the Adversary than with God.

^o Traditionally, ‘reward.’ The language here is explicitly monetary, the term used for a worker’s payment that was earned from their work. It is not an unearned gift; it is explicitly the payment due for completing work, whether used literally about manual labor and money or figurately about effort required in the spiritual life and the earned compensation for that effort.

^p Salt was a required ingredient for purifying sacrifices in the Hebrew Bible (see Exodus 30:35 [the Hebrew that is sometimes translated as ‘mixed’ literally means ‘salted’]; Lev 2:13; Num 18:19; Ezekiel 43:24; 2 Kings 2:19-22; Ezra 6:9).

^q The Greek word moraino is the verb form of moros, where English ‘moron’ comes from. It carries a sense of shortsightedness or negligence. The word doesn’t actually have anything to do with flavor or preservative properties of salt. The nature of the carelessness isn’t made explicit, but the context of the next question implies losing its identity or qualities in some way. Unlike modern salt with industrial refinement properties, the salt of this period contained impurities, other minerals mixed in with the salt. If salt was carelessly exposed to moisture, the salt would dissolve and leave behind only the impurities, which would basically simply be sand.

^r Reference to Isaiah 49:1-13

^s Traditionally, ‘good.’ Like the word ‘good’ in English, the word kalos in Greek has a number of uses, though in the Bible, they are typically about something along the lines of being honorable, admirable, beautiful or something that is appealing in some way.

^t This word is the same in Greek whether about the sky, tiers of social power, or a symbol of where God is present. The Greek can be singular (ouranos) or plural (ouranoi) and the two forms are used interchangeably.

^u This word nomizo can be translated as ‘suppose’ or ‘think,’ but it’s more than an opinion. It is the verb related to ‘instruction’ or ‘law’ or ‘torah’ and carries a meaning of the supposition being received from others or assumption.

^v The Torah (Greek: nomos) and the Prophets (Greek: prophetes) is the translation of the names of the first two (and most established by the first century) out of three sections of the Hebrew scriptures—Torah (Hebrew for ‘instruction’) and Nevi’im (Hebrew for ‘prophets’). To this day, the way Jews refer to the Hebrew Bible is TaNaK: T.N.K. = Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim (Hebrew for other ‘writings’).

^w Or ‘Torah’

^x Traditionally, ‘righteousness.’ The word dikaiosune literally means ‘aligned.’ It signifies being aligned with God’s standards described in Torah and elaborated and demonstrated by Jesus. ‘Justice’ and ‘justness’ are often appropriate words to convey the idea as most of what Jesus showed to be the focus is about how people treat each other, especially the vulnerable, like people in poverty, widows, orphans, immigrants, prisoners, people who are sick or disabled and others.

^y Despite how Christian tradition assumes them to be, Pharisees were known as being particularly faithful spiritual teachers. The typical Christian assumption of someone who is a legalistic hypocrite is certainly not what Jesus’ audience would have had in mind here. This statement would have seemed baffling in the same way a Christian might hear the statement “more loving or holy than Jesus.”

^z Traditionally, ‘enter.’ Eiserchomai can be translated as ‘enter,’ ‘go in,’ ‘come in,’ ‘participate in,’ or ‘join in,’ and others. Since Jesus is not talking about a location, ‘enter’ or ‘go in’ don’t make sense in the context. Rather, it’s talking about participating in how God interacts with the world.

^aa Citation from the Hebrew scriptures: Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17

^bb This part is not a citation of the Hebrew scriptures, though it likely refers to sections that lay out the penalties for murder. Writings in the Mishnah and Talmud (Jewish writings that explored interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures and their application) added significant protections regarding due process and prevention of wrongful executions. Jesus is taking it even further, attempting not only to prevent wrongful executions but to prevent the mindset that leads to murder in the first place.

^cc The phrase "harbor bitterness" captures the Greek term orgizo, describing a deep-seated resentment. As a present participle, it implies an ongoing, habitual state rather than a passing emotion, suggesting a persistent attitude that shapes one's behavior and interactions.

^dd The word adelphos, which literally means ‘brother’ or ‘sibling.’ It was also frequently used to refer to ‘cousin’ or ‘relative,’ and even for members of the same ideological or ethnic group. With Jesus’ insistence on a radically inclusive understanding of God’s instruction, always pushing further than what already seems to be the most wide-sweeping view, “fellow child of God” seems appropriate here.

^ee The term raca, an Aramaic insult, conveyed deep contempt or disdain, roughly meaning "empty-headed" or "worthless." Jesus cautioned his followers against dehumanizing others with such language, as it belittles inherent human dignity and the sacred worth of each person, not only for the sake but for the mindset of the speaker.

^ff The Sanhedrin was the highest Jewish judicial and council body in ancient Israel, handling religious, civil, and criminal cases. Comprised of religious leaders, it held authority over community matters,

^gg Gehenna is the Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Ge Hinnom or “Hinnom Valley,” infamous as a site of infant sacrifice to the god Molech during ancient polytheistic practices. The Hinnom Valley later served as a burial place, and for a period, the Romans used it to cremate corpses. Although it may have also been a dumpsite due to its cursed reputation, no historical evidence confirms the common teaching that perpetual fires burned there to consume trash—this idea emerged around 1000 years after Jesus. Every mention of Gehenna in the New Testament carries the weight of warnings in Jeremiah about Hinnom Valley. Notable references include Jeremiah 7-9 (especially Jeremiah 7:30-34) and Jeremiah 19:1-13, where the valley symbolizes both Israel’s deviation from God’s teachings and the severe consequences for oppression and injustice. Failure to follow the teachings of the Torah led to destruction, exile, and disgrace: sacred places were lost, corpses left unattended, and the people suffered exile to Babylon. Jesus drew on this tradition, warning against oppressive practices and values of domination, exclusion, and violence, foretelling a similar judgment on Jerusalem, which was ultimately destroyed by Rome in AD 70—about 40 years later. Though later rabbinic teaching did apply Hinnom Valley metaphorically to describe a time of post-mortem punishment, it was thought to be limited to a year, with rest granted on the Sabbath. There is little evidence that Jesus envisioned anything akin to the modern concept of Hell, a notion that did not fully develop until centuries later and only assumed its current form with the influence of medieval European folklore.

^hh Referring to someone who is against you in a matter of justice.

ⁱⁱ The kodrantes (Latin: quadrans) was a Roman copper coin worth about one-quarter of an assarion, one-sixteenth of a denarius, and was one of the smallest denominations in circulation. In context, it often signifies a negligible amount, underscoring themes of poverty, humility, or symbolic smallness. In modern terms, if we assume an 8-hour workday, then a quadrans was the pay for about 7-8 minutes of work at minimum wage.

^jj Citation of Exodus 20:14 and Deuteronomy 5:18

^kk The concept of ‘heart’ was similar to our figurative use as place in our body serving as the center for our cares. It did not represent all emotions, but rather, it represented desires and motivations.

^ll See all of Jeremiah 2, especially the language of bride straying to other lovers.

^mm Gehenna is the Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Ge Hinnom or “Hinnom Valley,” infamous as a site of infant sacrifice to the god Molech during ancient polytheistic practices. The Hinnom Valley later served as a burial place, and for a period, the Romans used it to cremate corpses. Although it may have also been a dumpsite due to its cursed reputation, no historical evidence confirms the common teaching that perpetual fires burned there to consume trash—this idea emerged around 1000 years after Jesus. Every mention of Gehenna in the New Testament carries the weight of warnings in Jeremiah about Hinnom Valley. Notable references include Jeremiah 7-9 (especially Jeremiah 7:30-34) and Jeremiah 19:1-13, where the valley symbolizes both Israel’s deviation from God’s teachings and the severe consequences for oppression and injustice. Failure to follow the teachings of the Torah led to destruction, exile, and disgrace: sacred places were lost, corpses left unattended, and the people suffered exile to Babylon. Jesus drew on this tradition, warning against oppressive practices and values of domination, exclusion, and violence, foretelling a similar judgment on Jerusalem, which was ultimately destroyed by Rome in AD 70—about 40 years later. Though later rabbinic teaching did apply Hinnom Valley metaphorically to describe a time of post-mortem punishment, it was thought to be limited to a year, with rest granted on the Sabbath. There is little evidence that Jesus envisioned anything akin to the modern concept of Hell, a notion that did not fully develop until centuries later and only assumed its current form with the influence of medieval European folklore.

ⁿⁿ The Greek apoluo is traditionally translated ‘divorced’ but it means more like ‘release’ or ‘dismiss.’ What makes the separation an official divorce is the ‘certificate of divorce.’ That protection was there because women’s only two options for survival were marriage and sex work, and without the legal divorce, they could not remarry. This section is a reference to Deuteronomy 24:1-4.

^oo There were two teachings at the time, one that taught men could divorce their wives for any reason they wanted and one that taught only marital infidelity was sufficient cause (whether sex with someone else or ‘neglect’ of responsibilities; see this article for a concise source of info on the cultural context of marriage and divorce at the time of Jesus: https://www.douglasjacoby.com/wp-content/uploads/Instone-Brewer-on-Divorce-Remarriage-1.pdf) ‘Remarriage’ in itself could not have been what Jesus meant as it was Roman law that people must remarry no more than 18 months after a divorce, and it would have left divorced women in poverty choosing between starving and sex work. The context—including Deuteronomy 24:1-4—indicates it is remarriage in the case of a man sending a woman away supposedly for violating torah and then deciding to marry her again later. It brings into question the genuineness of his original motives for divorce and the justice or injustice of his treatment of the woman.

^pp Citation of Leviticus 19:12 (verses 11-18 all seem to be connected).

^qq Citation of Psalm 48:1-2

^rr Reference to Deuteronomy 23:21-23

^ss The word poneros means ‘hardship’ or ‘bad condition’ or ‘disease.’ It is sometimes used as a proper noun, which could be like the concept of ‘hardship’ or ‘corruption’ or ‘desperation,’ which I also considered here. The context of Deuteronomy 23:15-25 expands this instruction of keeping one’s word, regardless of vow, to be part of the direction not to take advantage of people. Jeremiah 7:1-15 also seems to be a relevant backdrop for understanding the kind of teaching Jesus has in mind since that chapter includes much of the topics in Matthew 5 and is cited several times throughout Matthew.

^tt Citation of Exodus 21:24 and Leviticus 24:20, limiting pentalies for wrongdoing to proportionate justice rather than escalation and vengeful retaliation.

^uu This word can often mean ‘borrow,’ but the subsequent return to the original owner implied in the English word ‘borrow’ does not apply in this context.

^vv Citation of Leviticus 19:18

^ww ‘Hateful toward you’ is traditionally ‘enemy.’ This part is not a citation of the Hebrew scriptures; likely it was ‘common sense’ wisdom of Jesus’ day in the face of Roman occupation.

^xx The most direct translation is ‘sons of your Father,’ but the word huios was also regularly used more figuratively to refer to an heir or descendants more broadly as well as those who were dedicated to following a particular movement or figure and emulating them.

^yy Traditionally, ‘evil,’ but it doesn’t mean ‘wickedness’ but rather ‘evil’ in the sense of ‘hardship,’ along the lines of the outdated phrase from 2 Samuel 19:7 in the King James Version here: “that will be worse unto thee than all the evil that befell thee from thy youth until now.” It can refer to the experience of hardship or oppression, or it can refer to being the cause of hardship or oppression and use a word more like ‘harmfulness’ or ‘oppressiveness.’

^zz This word is traditionally ‘good’ but it is a bit more specific than just any way to be positive, and did not mean ‘obedient.’ It carries the meaning of being beneficial to others, benevolent, kind, generous, or promoting well-being for people.

^aaa Tax collectors were considered traitors as Jews employed by the Romans. They were also known for taking more than the Romans required so they could keep it.

^bbb The word adelphos, which literally means ‘brother’ or ‘sibling.’ It was also frequently used to refer to ‘cousin’ or ‘relative,’ and even for members of the same ideological or ethnic group. With Jesus’ insistence on a radically inclusive understanding of God’s instruction, it is always pushing further than what already seems to be the most wide-sweeping view people hold.

^ccc The parallel statements of tax collectors and ‘foreigners’ (traditionally ‘Gentiles’) is intentional. The first is an example of someone who deviates from the Path of the Lord and exploits their own people as a means of thriving despite foreign oppression. The second is a reference to the foreign oppressors who neither actually follow nor claim to follow the teachings of the Hebrew Scriptures and the Path of the Lord, but Jesus’ Jewish audience is supposed to be faithful to them regardless of what others do.